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Prophets in Islam are exemplars to ordinary humans. They exhibit model characteristics of righteousness and moral conduct. Prophetic typologies shared by all prophets include prophetic lineage, advocating monotheism, transmitting God's messages, and warning of the eschatological consequences of rejecting God. Prophetic revelation often comes in the form of signs and divine proofs. Each prophet is connected to one another, and ultimately support the final prophetic message of Muhammad. The qualities prophets possess are meant to lead people towards the straight path. In one hadith, it was stated: "Among men the prophets suffer most."[20]
Protection from sin and failure
Classical Islamic teaching, especially Shia Islam,[21] teach that unlike other human beings, prophets have the quality of ʿiṣmah, i.e., are protected by God from making mistakes or committing grave sins.[22] This does not mean that they do not err, rather that they always seek to correct their mistakes. It is argued that sins are necessary for prophets, so they can show the people how to repent.[23]
Some doubt whether there is Quranic basis for ʿiṣmah,[22] but the notion became "mainstream Sunni doctrine" by the ninth century CE.[24][25]
The Quran speaks of the prophets as being the greatest human beings of all time.[17] Quran 4:69 lists various virtuous groups of human beings, among whom prophets (including messengers) occupy the highest rank. Verse 4:69 reads:[14]
All who obey God and the messenger are in the company of those on whom is the Grace of God—of the prophets (who teach), the sincere (lovers of Truth), the witnesses (who testify), and the Righteous (who do good): Ah! what a beautiful fellowship!
— Quran 4:69[26]
Stories of the prophets in the Quran demonstrate that it is "God's practice" (Sunnat Allah) to make faith triumph finally over the forces of evil and adversity. "We have made the evil ones friends to those without faith."[27] "Assuredly God will defend those who believe."[28][29] The prophets are divinely inspired by God but "share no divine attributes", and possess "no knowledge or power" other than that granted to them by God.[30] Prophets are considered to be chosen by God for the specific task of teaching the faith of Islam.[17]
Age
Some were called to prophesy late in life, such as Muhammad at the age of 40.[31] Some were called to prophesy at a young age, such as John the Baptist.[32] Jesus prophesied while still in his cradle.[33]
Female prophets
The Tawrat (the Arabic-language name for the Torah within its context as an Islamic holy book) mentions that Deborah was a prophetess as well as the fourth Judge of pre-monarchic Israel.
The question of Mary's prophethood has been debated amongst Muslim theologians. The Zahirite ("literalist") school argued that Mary as well as Sara the mother of Isaac, and Asiya, the mother of Moses are not considered as prophets. The Zahirites-based this determination on the instances in the Quran where angels spoke to the women and divinely guided their actions.[34] According to the Zahirite Ibn Hazm of Cordova (d. 1064) women could be placed under the categorization of nubuwwa ("prophethood") but not under risala ("messengerhood") which could only be attained by men.[34] Ibn Hazm also based his position on Mary's prophethood on Qurān 5:75 which refers to Mary as "a woman of truth" just as it refers to Joseph as a "man of truth" in Q12:46. Other linguistic examples which augment scholarship around Mary's position in Islam can be found in terms used to describe her. For example, In Q4:34 Mary is described as being one of the "qanitin", or one who exhibits "qunut" ("devout obedience"). This is the same term used for male prophets in the masculine gender plural of Arabic. The feminine plural, which is not used, would be "qanitat".[35]
Challenges to Mary's prophethood have often been based on Q12:109 which reads "We have only sent men prior to you". Some scholars have argued that the use of the term "rijal" or men should be interpreted as providing a contrast between men and angels and not necessarily as contrasting men and women.[35]
The majority of scholars, particularly in the Sunni tradition, have rejected this doctrine as bid'a ("heretical innovation").[34]
Prophetic lineage
Abraham is widely recognized for being the father of monotheism in the Abrahamic religions, however, in the Quran he is recognized as a messenger and a link in the chain of Muslim prophets. Muhammad, God's final messenger and the revelator of the Quran, is a descendant of Abraham. In the Quran it reads, "He [God] said: 'I am making you [Abraham] a spiritual exemplar to mankind.'" (Q. 2:124) This phrase is affirming Islam as an Abrahamic religion, and further promoting Abraham as an important figure in the history of the Quran. This confirmation of the prophetic relationship (between Abraham and Muhammad) is significant to Abraham's story in the Quran – due to the fact that the last messenger, Muhammad, completes Abraham's prophetic lineage. This relationship can be seen in the Quranic chapter 6:
"That is Our Argument which We imparted to Abraham against his people. We raise up in degrees whomever We please. Your Lord is indeed Wise, All-Knowing. And We granted him Isaac and Jacob, and guided each of them; and Noah We guided before that, and of his progeny, [We guided] David, Solomon, Job, Joseph, Moses and Aaron. Thus We reward the beneficent. And Zechariah, John, Jesus and Elias, each was one of the righteous. And Ishmael, Elijah, Jonah and Lot; each We exalted above the whole world. [We also exalted some] of their fathers, progeny and brethren. And We chose them and guided them to a straight path." (Q. 6:83-87)
These particular verses support the Quranic narrative for Abraham to be recognized as a patriarch and is supported by his prophetic lineage concluding with Muhammad. Although Muhammad is considered the last prophet, some Muslim traditions also recognize and venerate saints (though modern schools, such as Salafism and Wahhabism, reject the theory of sainthood).[36]
The Quran presents the world of Abraham as interlocking dramas or conflicts. The divine drama concerns the events of creation and banishment from the garden; while the human drama concerns the life and history of humanity but, also inclusive of the ever-changing events in of individual lives and those of the prophets.[16] This is the situation that calls the faith of the Prophets to follow and reclaim the message of the Straight path and this is characterization of the conflicts between the two dramas. The Islamic morality is founded on this virtuous living through faith in the life ordained by the divine. This is the divine task given to believers accompanied by the divine gift that the Prophets had in revelation and perspective of ayat.[16] This the key feature to the authority of their revelation because not only is the source of revelation is God but it produces texts that are seen as distinctive than other poetry but it fits within the Abrahamic tradition. Poetry especially, in the Arabian context, connects the Quran to Pre-Islamic poetry which originates from the jihn; however, the Quran's place within other religious contexts gives the revelation to Muhammed the same authority of the Hebrew texts and the New Testament.[37]
Monotheism
The Quran states,
"And (remember) Abraham, when he said to his people: 'Worship Allah and fear Him; that is far better for you, if only you knew. Indeed, you only worship, apart from Allah, mere idols, and you invent falsehood. Surely, those you worship, apart from Allah, have no power to provide for you. So, seek provision from Allah, worship Him and give Him thanks. You shall be returned unto Him.'" (Q. 29:16-17)
This passage promotes Abraham's devotion to God as one of his messengers along with his monotheism. Islam is a monotheistic religion, and Abraham is one who is recognized for this transformation of the religious tradition. This prophetic aspect of monotheism is mentioned several times in the Quran. Abraham believed in one true God (Allah) and promoted an "invisible oneness" (tawḥīd) with him. The Quran proclaims, "Say: 'My lord has guided me to a Straight Path, a right religion, the creed of Abraham, an upright man who was no polytheist.'" (Q. 6:161) One push Abraham had to devote himself to God and monotheism is from the pagans of his time. Abraham was devoted to cleansing the Arabian Peninsula of this impetuous worship.[38] His father was a wood idol sculptor, and Abraham was critical of his trade. Due to Abraham's devotion, he is recognized as the father of monotheism.
Eschatology
Prophets and messengers in Islam often fall under the typologies of nadhir ("warner") and bashir ("announcer of good tidings"). Many prophets serve as vessels to inform humanity of the eschatological consequences of not accepting God's message and affirming monotheism.[39] A verse from the Quran reads: "Verily, We have sent thee [Muhammad] with the truth, as a bearer of glad tidings and a warner: and thou shalt not be held accountable for those who are destined for the blazing fire." (Q2:119) The prophetic revelations found in the Quran offer vivid descriptions of the flames of Hell that await nonbelievers but also describe the rewards of the gardens of Paradise that await the true believers.[39] The warnings and promises transmitted by God through the prophets to their communities serve to legitimize Muhammed's message. The final revelation that is presented to Muhammed is particularly grounded in the belief that the Day of Judgement is imminent.
Signs and divine proofs
Throughout the Quran, prophets such as Moses and Jesus often perform miracles or are associated with miraculous events. The Quran makes clear that these events always occur through God and not of the prophet's own volition. Throughout the Meccan passages there are instances where the Meccan people demand visual proofs of Muhammad's divine connection to God to which Muhammad replies "The signs are only with Allah, and I am only a plain warner." (Q29:50) This instance makes clear that prophets are only mortals who can testify to God's omnipotence and produce signs when he wills it.[39] Furthermore, the Quran states that visual and verbal proofs are often rejected by the unbelievers as being sihr ("magic") The Quran reads: "They claim that he tries to bewitch them and make them believe that he speaks the word of God, although he is just an ordinary human being like themselves. (Q74:24-25)
Representation and prophetic connection to Muhammad
There are patterns of representation of Quranic prophecy that support the revelation of Muhammad. Since Muhammad is in Abraham's prophetic lineage, they are analogous in many aspects of their prophecy. Muhammad was trying to rid the Pagans of idolatry during his lifetime, which is similar to Abraham. This caused many to reject Muhammad’s message and even made him flee from Mecca due to his unsafety in the city. Carl Ernest, the author of How to Read the Qur’an: A New Guide, with Select Translations, states, "The Qur’an frequently consoles Muhammad and defends him against his opponents."[40] This consolation can also be seen as parallel to Abraham's encouragement from God. Muhammad is also known to perform miracles as Abraham did. Sura 17 (al-isrā) briefly describes Muhammad's miraculous Night Journey where he physically ascended to the Heavens to meet with previous prophets. This spiritual journey is significant in the sense that many Islamic religious traditions and transformations were given and established during this miracle, such as the ritual of daily prayer. (Q17:78-84) Muhammad is a descendant of Abraham; therefore, this not only makes him part of the prophetic lineage, but the final prophet in the Abrahamic lineage to guide humanity to the Straight Path. In Sura 33 (al-ahzāb) it confirms Muhammad and states, "Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but is the Messenger of Allah and the seal of the Prophets. Allah is Cognizant of everything". (Q33:40)
Obedience
The Quran emphasizes the importance of obedience to prophets in Surah 26 Ash-Shu'ara, in which a series of prophets preaching fear of God and obedience to themselves.
verse 108 has Noah saying 'fear God and Obey me'
verse 126 has Hud saying 'fear God and obey me'
verse 144 has Salih saying 'fear God and obey me'
verse 163 has Lot saying 'fear God and obey me'
verse 179 has Shu'ayb saying 'fear God and obey me'[41][42]
Scriptures and other gifts
Holy books of Islam
See also: Islamic holy books
The revealed books are the records which Muslims believe were dictated by God to various Islamic prophets throughout the history of mankind, all these books promulgated the code and laws of Islam. The belief in all the revealed books is an article of faith in Islam and Muslims must believe in all the scriptures to be a Muslim. Islam speaks of respecting all the previous scriptures.[43]
The Quran mentions some Islamic scriptures by name:
The "Tawrat" (also Tawrah or Taurat; Arabic: توراة) is the Arabic name for the Torah within its context as an Islamic holy book believed by Muslims to have been revealed to the prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel. When referring to traditions from the Tawrat, Muslims have not only identified it with the Pentateuch, but also with the other books of the Hebrew Bible as well as with Talmudic and Midrashim writings.[44]
The Quran mentions the Zabur, interpreted as being the Book of Psalms,[45] as being the holy scripture revealed to King David (Dawud). Scholars have often understood the Psalms to have been holy songs of praise, and not a book administering law.[46] The current Psalms are still praised by many Muslim scholars.[47][48] Quran 21:105 and Psalm 37:29 are direct counterparts.[49]
Books of Divine Wisdom (Arabic: possibly identified as الْزُبُر az-Zubur): The Quran mentions certain Books of Divine Wisdom,[50] translated by some scholars as Books of Dark Prophecies, which are a reference to particular books vouchsafed to some prophets, wherein there was wisdom for man. Some scholars have suggested that these may be one and the same as the Psalms as their root Arabic word, Zubur (Quran 35:25) - the plural for the word "Scriptures", comes from the same source as the Arabic Zabur for the Psalms.
The Injil (Gospel) was the holy book revealed to Jesus, according to the Quran. Although many lay Muslims believe the Injil refers to the entire New Testament, scholars have clearly pointed out that it refers not to the New Testament but to an original Gospel, which was sent by God, and was given to Jesus.[51] Therefore, according to Muslim belief, the Gospel was the message that Jesus, being divinely inspired, preached to the Children of Israel. The current canonical Gospels, in the belief of Muslim scholars, are not divinely revealed but rather are documents of the life of Jesus, as written by various contemporaries, disciples and companions. These Gospels contain portions of Jesus's teachings but do not represent the original Gospel, which was a single book written not by a human but was sent by God.[52]
Quran: The Quran (Arabic: القرآن, romanized: al-Qurʼān) was the revelation revealed to Muhammad.
Scrolls of Abraham (Arabic: صحف إبراهيم, Ṣuḥuf ʾIbrāhīm)[53] are believed to have been one of the earliest bodies of scripture, which were given to Abraham (Ibrāhīm),[54] and later used by Ishmael (Ismā‘īl) and Isaac (Isḥāq).[citation needed] Although usually referred to as "scrolls", many translators have translated the Arabic suhuf as "books".[47][55] The verse mentioning the "Scriptures" is in Quran 87:18-19 where they are referred to, alongside the Scrolls of Moses, to have been "Books of Earlier Revelation".
Scrolls of Moses (Arabic: صُحُفِ مُوسَىٰ, Ṣuḥuf Mūsā) are an ancient body of scripture mentioned twice in the Quran. They are part of the religious scriptures of Islam. Jordanian scholar and professor of philosophy Ghazi bin Muhammad mentions that the "Scrolls of Moses" are identical to the Torah of Moses.[56]
Book of Enlightenment (Arabic: الكِتَابُ ٱلْمُنِير, romanized: Kitābul-Munīr): The Quran mentions a Book
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