Flat Earth 21 Questions And Answers Proving Stranger's Guide And Course Flat Earth

Proving Stranger's Guide And Course Flat Earth A comprehensive beginners course that thoroughly explains the answers to 21 of the most frequently asked questions about flat earth. Journey through the list from beginning to end while all the "loose ends" are tied up by the time it's over. Share with you friends, family and loved ones. The #earth is most definitely #flat and it is important for us to understand.
21 Questions:
01. Where’s the edge?
02. Where does the sun go if the #earth is flat?
03. What’s underneath the #flatearth ?
04. What about ships & boats disappearing over the horizon?
05. What about all the pictures of the #earth ?
06. Why are all the other planets round?
07. What about satellites and GPS?
08. Is outer space even real?
09. How is circumnavigation possible on flat earth?
10. How come the moon is upside down in the southern hemisphere?
11. What about seasons?
12. What about gravity?
13. What about the Coriolis Effect?
14. Why can’t I see infinitely far?
15. Is the #flatearth a religious thing?
16. Is the #flatearthsociety behind the resurgence of the #flatearth?
17. Are all scientists, pilots and members of the government in on it?
18. #NASA isn’t the only space agency. Are all the others in on it?
19. Well then who’s responsible for this deception?
20. Why the lie?
21. What’s it mean if the #earth is flat?

So where's the edge?
who's to say that there is an edge and why assume there is one? is it because when we are introduced to the idea of a flat earth it's always depicted like this? in the currently most accepted model Antarctica is not a continent, but a 360 degree landmass made up of ice that holds the oceans within. when we look at a Gleason's map from 1892 that states at the top that it's scientifically and practically correct as is we see this Antarctic ice rim. the Gleason's map is basically an azimuthal equidistant projection which can be traced back to the year 1000. the AE map is also an official map of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and the official logo for the United Nations. the oldest known globe in the world is from 1492 this is something you need to keep in mind because many people argue that the azimuthal equidistant map is just a flattened out version of the globe when in fact the globe is just a rounded version of this true world flat map. if the flat map came first and it has the ability to convert into a globe without any problems whatsoever then that should tell you a little bit about how this globe deception was achieved. now back to if there is an edge or not. there is no proof that there is an edge past the Antarctic ice wall, but it is speculated by many that perhaps the plane that we live on is either extremely expensive or it's possibly endless. in these two scenarios it would be logically assumed that more land as being hidden from the general public in a 1954 interview with Admiral Richard E bird, an American naval officer who specialized in exploration, he had this to say: "but strangely enough left in the world today is an area as big as the United States that's never been seen by human being and that's beyond the pole on the other side of the South Pole from Middle America and I think it's quite astonishing that it should be an area as big as that unexplored." implying that there is more land past Antarctica. if that uninhabited land was on a globe it would be in the Indian Ocean. a recent discovery of an old Buddhist map in a newspaper from 1907 seems to support the idea of a vast plain with much more land.

Where does the Sun go if the earth is flat?
well the Sun neither rises nor sets, but travels in a clockwise circuit from east to west and only appears to rise and set due to perspective. the Sun disappears at the vanishing point of human perspective on the horizon where the ground meets the sky and since the sun is not 93 million miles away I repeat NOT 93 million miles away, but much closer and smaller the light emanating from the Sun only illuminates about half of the flat plane at once as it makes its daily journey.

What's underneath the flat earth?
this is obviously an unanswerable question since the assumed edge has never been known to be reached, but many people suppose that whether the earth is round or flat that either way it still must be floating in the middle of outer space, but the idea of outer space goes out the window with the round earth theory. many religious text support an immovable earth that has its foundations on which it is laid and its pillars by which it is supported. we simply don't know, but we do know that the earth is obviously fixed in place as we can tell by our everyday experience of non movement. what we see in the skies above are illuminated objects making circles around us just as it appears. whatever this place maybe it's the center of all we survey. some say that the earth is the floor of the universe. in the ancient Hebrew conception of the universe we are surrounded by the waters above and the waters below known as the great deep. the deepest hole ever drilled into the earth was a total of about seven and a half miles. the very core of the earth is nothing more than wild speculation if not another malicious lie. so what's under the earth? that remains a mystery to us all,
but another thing that you can research is what's inside the earth. multi-billion dollar deep underground military bases known as dumbs D.U.M.B's.

What about ships and boats disappearing over the horizon?
this is also due to human perspective. they don't go over the horizon. they go into the horizon, moving beyond the limit of our vision and passed the vanishing point, but the ships and boats are easily brought back into view with a pair of binoculars a telescope and any camera with a good zoom lens. a great question to ask yourself is why can't we see noticeable curvature from 120,000 feet up, but many people claim that the supposed curvature can be seen from the ground by watching boats? it doesn't make sense.

What about all the pictures of the earth?
they are all clearly computer-generated images they claim this picture from apollo 17 in 1972 Is real and they also claim that the 2015 epic earth picture is real, but NASA employee Robert Simmon gave us a glimpse of how they do it when he shared his experience of creating the blue marble 2.0 in 2002. he is now called mr. blue marble. he was interviewed and on record stating "the last time anyone took a photograph from above low Earth orbit that showed an entire hemisphere one side of the globe was in 1972 during Apollo 17 NASA's Earth observing system EOS satellites were designed to give a check-up of Earth's health by 2002 we finally had enough data to make a snapshot of the entire Earth so we did." in 2002, blue marble 2.0. NASA's Rob Simmon made this. Simmon's job is... it's primarily taking data and making pictures out of it. that's what this is. a composite of data sets from several different instruments translated into a picture. so we actually had to take clouds and out. stashed the clouds for later went on to the ocean that came from an instrument that measures phytoplankton in the sea. where it was low, I color it dark blue because they're low mostly in mid oceans and then where it's a little bit higher, it was like a little bit brighter green, then add the clouds back in. there is a small problem with it because there's a very slight gap in between each orbit so some of those are painted on. it is photoshopped but it has to be. then there was another layer to sort of simulate the atmosphere and then there's this little bright spot, it's called the specular highlight. so it's the reflection of sunlight off of water. those are the pieces, but you can't just slap them all together just didn't look realistic it looks kind of flat or the clouds are sort of to see through so i just hit command + Z a lot. there's artistry to creating the world. what I imagined it to be. unfortunately i'm not an astronaut. I've never been to space, but I've looked at these images over and over again trying to sort of get the essence of it. It is photoshopped but it has to be. it is photoshopped but it has to be. it is photoshopped but it has to be. it is photoshopped but it has to be.

Why are all the other planets around then?
when you compare amateur footage done with professional grade cameras and compare it to NASA's official images of planets and stars, it's clear that NASA images are all computer-generated. no different than the photos of Earth. what have become known as planets are round lights that seem to be set over the flat earth. the so-called planets and stars are not what we have been told they are and comparing luminous objects that you see in the sky to the earth under your feet is very ineffective for actually proving the supposed rotundity of the earth. since there are no actual photographs of the earth and motion has never been experienced or proven, it would seem more logical for one to assume that we are on a flat motionless plain and everything we see in the heavens revolves around us.

What about satellites and GPS?
as crazy as it may sound, satellites are a hoax. have you ever wondered why there are never any damaged or fallen satellites? and why there are no satellite malfunctions due to constant heating and cooling? it's weird they don't melt in the thermosphere that's over 2,000 degrees. I find myself looking at the moon and wondering why we never see satellites pass by the moon. did you know there are thousands of miles of fiber optic cables under the seabed that supplies 90% of the Earth's communication? internet, phones, etc. and GPS works off of cell phone towers. it's called triangulation. haven't you seen those really tall towers and wondered what they are? satellite TV is just enhanced radio using ground-based towers it's all ground-based just like the old TV antenna. science fiction author arthur c. clarke proposed the idea of geostationary satellites in 1945 in a magazine called wireless world and twenty years later in 1965 they claim to have successfully launched the first commercial geostationary communication satellite. today there are said to be thousands, but the odd thing is that trying to prove it only leaves you fruitless.

Is outer space even real?
yes and no. what you see in the sky as far as stars and wandering stars also known as planets are there. how could we deny them? we don't know what they actually are, but they are there. now what we are told about outer space and what it is is not true at all. everything we believe about so-called outer space is due mostly to Hollywood movies and other media including children's cartoons. of course NASA propaganda is the biggest culprit. as we have already gone over there are no pictures of Earth and even images of all the other so-called planets are computer generated. NASA has gone on record numerous times stating that humans can't get past low Earth orbit. NASA's next spacecraft already being built and tested across America will do those things and more. this is the spacecraft that's going to take humans to explore the solar system it's the next big step for NASA and exploration. called the Orion multi-purpose crew vehicle or MPCV this next generation spacecraft will enable America to explore beyond low-earth orbit. as we get further away from earth will pass through the Van Allen belts. an area of dangerous radiation but orion has protection. shielding will be put to the test as the vehicle cuts through the waves of radiation. sensors aboard will record radiation levels for scientists to study. we must solve these challenges before we send people through this region of space. plan that NASA has is to build a rocket called SLS which is a heavy lift rocket. it's something that is much bigger than what we have today and it will be able to launch the Orion capsule with humans on board as well as Landers
or other components to get to destinations beyond Earth orbit. right now we only can fly in Earth orbit. that's the farther so we can go and this new system that we're building is going to allow us to go beyond and hopefully take humans into the solar system to explore. so the moon, Mars, asteroids, there's a lot of destinations that we could go to and we're building these building block components in order to allow us to do that eventually. and unlike the previous program, we are setting a course with specific and achievable milestones. early in the next decade a set of crude flights will test and prove the systems required for exploration beyond low Earth orbit. low
Earth orbit is supposedly between 99 and 1,200 miles away. the funny thing is that they say the moon is over 200,000 miles away. how did we make it so far in the 1960's and 1970's if we can't do it today? also the International Space Station, just like everything else brought to us by NASA, is a fake free masonic hoax completely fabricated and done with special effects, models, pools, zero g planes and various other camera tricks.

How is circumnavigation possible on a flat earth?
very easily. you can travel east and west directions to ultimately end up right back where you started. the face of the earth looks similar to that of a clock. in fact, clocks were most likely designed after the true appearance of our world. if you follow a compass east for long enough you'll make a full circuit. same thing if you travel west long long enough. as we've already gone over, the flat earth map that was around before globes were easily converts to a globe. so everything you believe you are doing on a globe is actually taking place on a flat earth.

How come the moon is upside down in the southern hemisphere?
this is another very simple explanation. when somebody is in the northern part of the earth. or on the northern part of the earth, they see the moon from this angle. when somebody is on the southern part of the earth the moon looks like this. they're looking at it from this angle. they see it from the opposite angle. that's all it is. imagine you tape a picture of the moon in the center of your living room. depending on where you are in the room the moon will be seen differently. when pondering this question, keep in mind that the face of the moon never changes. on a spherical earth we'd expect to see other sides, but we never have.

What about the seasons?
the Sun is close and small and it circles around and above the flat earth in a spiral pattern. on the tropic of cancer in the northern summer months and then down in the tropic of capricorn in the northern winter months. so when the Sun is further away from the North Pole, the center of the flat earth, it's winter in the north and summer in the south. since the sun is smaller than we are told and closer it makes much more sense that we experience seasons in the first place. if the Sun was 93 million miles away and had a radius of over 400,000 miles we would hardly experience temperature fluctuation as we do.

What about gravity?
gravity is necessary in order for a spinning ball earth to work. people readily believe that you can't fall off of a spinning ball that's darting through outer space at speeds that you can't even comprehend, yet they will deny how much easier it is to stay on a flat surface that doesn't move. gravity is a scapegoat for all that cannot be explained and it has never been proven. the reason why things fall or float is because of density and buoyancy. if something is heavier than air it falls. if it's lighter than air it floats. very straightforward. your phone is denser than the air. therefore it falls when you drop it. everything works because of density no need to factor in imaginary components. quote "the law of gravitation is said by the advocates of the Newtonian system of astronomy to be the greatest discovery of science and the foundation of the whole of modern astronomy. if therefore it can be shown that gravitation is a pure assumption and an imagination of the mind only, that it has no existence outside of the brains of its expanders and advocates, the whole of the hypotheses of this modern so-called science fall to the ground as flat as the surface of the ocean and this most exact of all Sciences, this wonderful feet of the intellect, becomes at once the most ridiculous superstition and the most gigantic imposture to which ignorance and credulity could ever be exposed. Thomas Winship, zetetic cosmogony

What about the Coriolis effect?
they say that the Coriolis effect is a result of the earth spinning and is responsible for the deflection of an object moving above the earth, rightward in the northern hemisphere and leftward in the southern hemisphere. the problem is that things like hurricanes and water in the sink aren't always predictable and have been known to spin both ways in either hemisphere. also another contradiction that proves the Coriolis effect false is the fact that no flying machine above the earth has to account for it. if a bullet that travels 1,700 miles per hour has to account for the effect than an airplane traveling at 550 miles per hour would definitely have to account for the effect. when you look for the answer you'll find that we are told that since the atmosphere moves with the spin of the earth, planes aren't affected. so why would bullets be, especially when they go much faster than common airplanes?

Why can't I see infinitely far?
this is for the people that wonder why they can't see certain things that they believe they should be able to see if the earth was flat. I've been asked on numerous occasions "why can't I see Mount Everest from anywhere on earth?" I've also been asked "why can't I see spain from the east coast of America?" well, besides dirt, dust, dew, rain, fog, smog, smoke, clouds, mist, haze, snow, etc, your vision is limited by the vanishing point of your perception. check your weather app on your phone and notice the visibility in your area.

Is the flat earth a religious thing?
yes and no. i say this because, i myself, am not religious.I'd rather not have faith in something, but know the facts to the best of my ability and the facts are that the curvature and motion of the earth have never been proven. the Bible without any doubt whatsoever supports an earth that's fixed in place The Book of Enoch which is biblically endorsed and most likely belongs in the Bible describes the flat stationary enclosed earth in great detail. many religions and civilizations preceding Judaism and Christianity support a flat and stationary earth such as the Babylonians, the Egyptians the Mayans, the Norse, the Hindus, etc. this fantastic spinning globe earth is very new to the people of the world, yet most of us carry on as if the theory is unquestionable and we've been conditioned to laugh when the flat earth is brought up.
whether you are religious or not, you can see the flat earth for yourself.

Is the flat earth society behind the resurgence of the flat earth?
no. the flat earth society is designed as a containment unit. gatekeepers that tell the truth about some stuff. but then lie about other things in order to make it appear ridiculous or steer you in the wrong direction. for instance this is what F.E.S has to say about gravity "in the Flat Earth model gravity rather than being a force is the upward acceleration of the flat earth. the earth always accelerates upward at one g which is equivalent to the gravitational acceleration in the round earth model. like the force of gravity, the Earth's acceleration causes several commonly observed phenomenon in our daily lives. if that isn't the biggest turnoff I don't know what is. the flat earth argument has never died. it only died down. real flat earthers have always been among us, but it wasn't until late 2014 early 2015 when Eric dubay started making a lot of noise about the flat earth conspiracy and got people like myself on board. it took me 10 months of research before finally accepting the truth about where we live. thanks to the many great flat earth researchers, content creators and activists since then, more and more people are waking up to the massive deception every day.

Are all scientists, pilots and members of the government in on it?
No most scientists, pilots and members of the government's have been indoctrinated just as the rest of us have. when they work at their everyday job, they go about it as if the earth is most certainly spherical. if indeed some of these people did know the earth is flat, they most likely wouldn't even speak out about it in fear of losing their job or ruining their reputation. the average scientist goes about everything they do with the spherical earth already factored in. for mainstream science, questioning our current model is a huge no-no. for pilots, computers do most of their work. not to take away from what they do because i personally appreciate it and also pilots often switch out and stops making it difficult to understand the real lay out of Earth's landmasses. as far as government members and politicians go besides high-ranking officials at NASA which isn't government at all, it's safe to assume that they are not in the know and they are not knowingly perpetrating this lie. very few people compared to the population of the world are enlightened to the flat earth.

NASA isn't the only space agency, are the others in on it too?
the answer is yes here's a short clip on what you need to know. the vector. NASA's official logo. if you've ever looked at NASA's official logo both their official insignia and their official seal, you'll see that most prominent object in the in the seal is a a red swishing object. they call that the chevron or the vector. if you ask NASA public affairs office why this symbology is featured so heavily in their insignia and seal they'll give you what really amounts to the standard facile cover story for the unilluminated. They'll tell you that that is a representation of a hypersonic wing design from the 1950's which was the time the logo was created. not exactly the case. someone might want to ask the russian federal space agency, roscosmos that was formed in 1992, why they chose that same logo and while you're at it you can go ask the Chinese,who formed their space agency in 1996, why in the world they're using the hypersonic wing design from the nineteen fifties as their official logo.
then you can ask the Japanese and South Koreans, Taiwanese, malaysia, mexico, Iran.all of these countries even bulgaria. they all utilize the vector symbology in the space agency logos for their international space agencies. it gets even deeper. you can go look at the individual manned program patches for NASA of the Mercury program for example. blatant use of covert symbology in every logo dealing with the Mercury program. we will see what looks like a number seven in their logo and again, NASA's official story is that they put this number seven there so that they could pay homage to the original seven mercury astronauts, kind of forgetting the fact that only six mercury astronauts actually flew into space. because number seven never never did. he had a heart problem so he didn't get to go up so there were only six mercury astronauts. yes there's a seven in every single logo that's in the official mission and say for official program insignia for mercury as well as the six individual
mission patches carry this member and it carries on to the space shuttle program if you look at the Apollo program the Apollo logo has a big letter and that's what they want you to but it's not again that's just the simple way of explaining away the inclusion of this vector symbology and the local if you go to the space shuttle program the original space shuttle sts program patch is a triangular patch that again hides the use of the shamrock vector symbology and that also goes for many of the sts specific mission patches every single one of the International Space Station expedition patches carry the vector symbology the russian air space station use the vector symbology that was there there official logo you can even go deeper and look at military industrial complex companies look at the logo on a company like Lockheed Martin two vectors the XPrize logo ames research labs US Space Command we get into the military realm the United States base commander official logo is the vector symbol and when you look at the military's individual space specific programs all of them all of them deal with vector symbology and their official insignia and the question really becomes who or what are these people paying homage to let's look at nasa's earth rise now let's look at Jaxa's Earthrise. do you believe this is real

Who's responsible for this deception?
you will find that the Jesuits and the Vatican have been intimately involved in all things space, including owning the earliest telescopes and to this day the largest owners of observatories and telescopes in the world. the society of Jesuits have been actively spreading the heliocentric theory for 500 years while trying to bury thousands of years of Flat Earth cosmology. the Jesuits are rulers of all powers that we are aware of and have been ruthless in their pursuit of world domination for centuries. no matter who is killed or what has to be done to establish a one world order out of chaos. they rule over or are deeply partnered with people like the Rothschilds and many other international banksters, secret societies, especially the Freemasons as well as zionist jews and especially zionist jews in seats of power. they rule over all the alphabet agencies and government think tanks including the NSA, CIA, FBI, Mossad, KGB, roundtable, committee of 300, Tavistock Institute, Lucis trust publishing, bilderberg group and the Council of Foreign Relations including representative government and legislation like the US presidency Congress and the Supreme Court. the jesuits order is said to have been established by Jews, again showing that the Jews are behind some of the biggest hoaxes in history, including the Holocaust. Freemasons are also spread out all over the world to further the different agendas that serve this Illuminati elite.

Why the lie?
their desire is to convince us that we are only one of a septillion other planets flying through infinite space. a septillion? where do they get these numbers? a septillion has 24 zeros. they want us to think that we are nothing more than a cosmic accident caused by a big *** that took place 14 billion years ago. again where do they get these numbers? how one could draw that conclusion is unknown. they want us not to understand our origin and go on believing that life is meaningless. they want us to believe that alien life is real and that they created us. look no further than ancient aliens for the propaganda. not to mention countless shows and movies they program us with. this isn't just about flat earth vs. round earth. it's much bigger than that. whatever they plan on doing needed the spherical earth groundwork laid before they could proceed. they may either shock us with a fake alien invasion or a disclosure of the beings that have always been among us passed off as life from distant galaxies. who knows? another reason to turn the earth into a ball is to hide extra land. if this is a vast plain and there are places past Antarctica with more oceans and more land masses, then an easy way to get rid of them is to wrap our part of this plain around a ball and make it seem as if there is nothing else and everything has already been discovered. the globe is full fledged slavery for inquiring minds. "I like to be an explorer like the great Magellan." "oh! you're too late. there's really nothing left to explore."

What does it mean if the earth is flat?
it means that the origin of man is deliberately being covered up from us. man woman child you are being deceived on a massive scale. flat earth, enclosed flat earth, expansive plane flat earth or even infinite plane flat earth with an infinite ceiling barrier or possibly another plane of existence above us and below us. it means that this place was created. that you were designed. you were crafted. you are special and with purpose. a purpose being hidden from you on purpose. we are supposed to know our world and our reason for being. we've been swallowed whole by this economic fiat money system that controls absolutely everything and rules this manufactured reality. most of us know that we are slaves and it's no wonder we desire to escape through movies, TV shows and video games that happen to also further our programming and mental conditioning. we were never meant to live like this and knowledge of our flat earth is a step in the right direction. it's something that can't be taken from us it's the fuel that we need to let these *** know that we won't go down in ignorance. we will not willingly accept their one world authority that wants to rule over all mind and all matter. embrace this flat world of ours and free your mind from the globalist mind control. it's time that we stand up for ourselves and our beautiful earth. all I want to know is who's coming with me? space may be the final frontier, but it's made in a hollywood basement. have you ever dreamed of going up to outer space or maybe meeting other beings from another place? have you ever wondered what it's like on other planets then you watch a science show and come to believe you understand it? you feel empowered by the knowledge and you feel enlightened listening to bill nye and neil degrasse tyson. but then you wake up and you start to see the obvious. life is just a lie and this whole world and what we thought it was. NASA's missions to the moon were never completed. they just filmed them in a room and people believe it. I used to wonder what it's like to be an astronaut, now when I see them acting I can't help but to laugh a lot. they give us cartoons and then claim that we live on the ball, but it's flat and it's not moving or spinning at all. why you lying to us, man? that's something that we want to know after that you're going to have to pack up all your stuff and go. space may be the final frontier, but it's made in a hollywood basement. history has been rewritten by winners of wars - the jesuit order, khazars, Freemasons and more. they pulled the veil over our eyes and it's time to awaken. through organized indoctrination our minds have been taken. it's time we take our power back and we rescue our people. the Vatican and the bankers are like resident evil. they may have had the greatest plan that was ever concocted, but Illuminati never thought that they'd ever be spotted. their manufacturing reality all in our heads. they tell us if the earth is flat we'll fall off the edge, but if it is the spinning ball we won't fall off and then and gravity is our imaginary magic friend. why is water always flat when unmanipulated? why are pictures of the earth computer-generated? why you lying to us, man? that's something that we want to know. after that you're going to have to pack up all your stuff and go. space may be the final frontier, but it's made in a hollywood basement Dear NASA, it's coming 100% crystal clear that you and the other space programs that are in operation are connected and are deceiving the entire world. More and more people are waking up every single day and we are now able to see right through you, but what we really want to know is why are you lying?

sincerely,
Me and the great people of this earth

CATEGORY: GRAVITY
Air Density vs Object’s Weight At a lower altitude, the air is denser, and objects weigh more. On the other hand, at a higher altitude, the air is less dense, and objects weigh less.

Flat-Earthers deny gravity and invented the “explanation” that an object falls only because it is denser than the air surrounding it. But if it were true, objects should weigh more at a higher altitude where the air is less dense. But they weigh less instead, disproving flat-Earthers’ density theory.

Gravitational Acceleration in Archimedes’ Formula Archimedes’ principle states that the upward buoyant force exerted on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces. Today we usually use B = -ρgV to calculate the buoyant force, where ρ is the fluid’s density, g is the gravitational acceleration, and V is the volume of the displaced fluid.

Archimedes discovered buoyancy earlier than Newton discovered gravity, and flat-Earthers dispute the presence of g in the buoyancy formula. In reality, buoyancy depends on the weight of the fluid, and the distinction between weight and mass only occurred after Newton. Archimedes’ principle still applies, only that we now have a better understanding of what weight is.

Newton discovered that the weight of a body on Earth’s surface is caused by gravity exerted by Earth’s mass on the body. Because the strength of Earth’s gravity varies, the weight of an object also depends on its location on Earth. Due to this fact, Newton separated weight into mass and gravitational acceleration. Mass is an intrinsic property of a body whose magnitude is constant despite being affected by the varying strength of Earth’s gravity.

In Archimedes’ time, we only knew about weight, we have not yet discovered that weight is actually caused by gravity, and we did not know that weight varies depending on the location. Because the weight of an object can vary, then the magnitude of buoyancy also varies. The existence of g in the buoyancy formula is there to account for the difference.

Isaac Newton and the Falling Apple The fall of an apple inspired Isaac Newton to understand that the same force that brought the apple falling toward the ground also keeps the Moon in motion around Earth. However, his work involved much more than just observing the falling apple.

Flat-Earthers downplay Newton’s contribution as if it was only about the falling Apple and use the episode as a means of ridicule. In reality, Newton’s works were much more than that.

Newton wrote the “Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica” to explain gravity, mechanics, and other topics. It consists of three books, with the following contents:

Book 1: motion without resisting medium, infinitesimal calculus, Kepler’s second law, circular motion, orbital path, inverse-square law, eccentric orbit, three-body problem, shell theorem.
Book 2: motion through resisting medium, resistance vs. velocity, hydrostatics, compressible fluids, derivation of Boyle’s law, the air resistance of pendulums, speed of waves, speed of sound.
Book 3: universal gravitation, the orbital motion of the Moon, the orbital motion of the satellites of Jupiter, the motion of comets, tides, the precession of the equinoxes, heliocentrism.
To formulate the law of gravity, Newton has to invent calculus in the first place. It is an entire field in mathematics and used in other branches of science, not just physics and mathematics.

Variation of Earth’s Gravitational Acceleration The acceleration of free-falling objects on Earth varies. It depends on various factors. The figure of 9.8 m/s² is just a nominal value to use if the actual local value is unknown or unimportant. These variations can only be explained using the law of gravity and that the Earth is a rotating sphere.

Flat-Earthers claim that science tells us that Earth’s gravitational acceleration is always 9.8 m/s² everywhere on Earth, and they use it as “evidence” Earth is flat and stationary. But, in reality, Earth’s gravitational acceleration does indeed vary in different locations.

The value of 9.8 m/s² is only an approximation. It is very close to the actual value everywhere on Earth, and close enough for most practical applications. The real value does differ by about 0.5%. An object at the poles will weight approximately 0.5% more than at the Equator.

The various factors that determine the magnitude of Earth’s gravity:

Latitude. The equator is farther away from the center of the Earth than the poles. The equator is also getting the highest centrifugal acceleration due to Earth’s rotation.
Altitude. Greater altitude means greater distance from Earth’s center of gravity, and therefore causes a weaker gravity.
Depth. If we go deeper below Earth’s surface, gravity becomes weaker because the mass above us will pull us upward instead of down.
Local topography & geology. Denser rocks under the ground below us will cause a stronger gravity.
Taking a scale to another location will no longer result in the correct measurement and will require recalibration. These gravity variations can only adequately be explained using the law of gravity and that Earth is a rotating sphere.

What We Feel as “Weight” is the Force of Gravity The weight of an object is the force exerted on the object by gravity. The gravitational force exerted by the Earth on an object is what we feel as the ‘weight’ of the object.

Many flat-Earthers fail to understand that the gravitational force is just another name for ‘weight’. Much misinformation in flat Earth communities arises from this misunderstanding.

One of the most common misconceptions found in the flat Earth community is that if gravity is so strong that it can make ocean water stick on Earth, it should affect objects that weigh less, like feathers & dandelions, with a far stronger force.

What we experience as the weight of an object is, in reality, the force of gravity itself, which is exerted by Earth’s mass on the object. The more massive an object, then the greater is its weight, or in other words, the greater the gravitational force exerted by the Earth on the object. And as a result, it would require more force to lift the object.

Force Vectors Many misinformation within flat-Earth communities is present only because of their lack of understanding on how forces work on an object.

A force is described by a vector. It has magnitude and direction.
A single object can be affected by more than one force at the same time.
These forces can be added together, resulting in what we call the ‘resultant’. The object will move according to the magnitude and direction of the resultant.
Forces can cancel each other out and results in a zero resultant. But it does not mean these forces don’t exist.
An insignificant force can be omitted in a calculation for simplification. But it doesn’t mean the force does not exist.
A force might have the opposite direction from the resultant. But it doesn’t mean the force does not exist.
This basic knowledge on how forces and vectors work can be used to answer these kinds of misconceptions:

“Helium balloon move upward. So, gravity does not exist.”
“Satellites are not falling to the Earth. So, gravity does not exist.”
“A feather can fly away because of wind. So, gravity does not exist.”
“Throwing a ball does not require us to account for the Coriolis effect. So, the Coriolis effect does not exist.”
Other similar misinformation can be found within the flat-Earth community and can be quickly answered using this basic knowledge of physics.

Newton’s Cannonball Newton’s cannonball was a thought experiment Isaac Newton used to explain the principle of orbital motion. It was the first explanation of an orbit and still the easiest to understand.

Newton visualizes a cannon on top of a very tall mountain where the air resistance is no longer a factor. As more charge is used with each cannon shot, the speed of the cannonball will be greater, and the cannonball will hit the ground farther and farther. Finally, at a certain speed, it will not hit the ground at all. It will fall toward the spherical Earth just as fast as the Earth curves away from it. In the absence of drag from the atmosphere, it will continue forever in orbit around the Earth.

Hill Sphere The Moon orbits the Earth —not the Sun— because the Moon lies well within Earth’s Hill sphere. Hill sphere is the region around Earth where Earth —instead of the Sun— dominates the attraction of satellites.

Flat-Earthers noticed the Sun exerts a stronger pull to the Moon than Earth does to the Moon. They incorrectly concluded that according to science, the Moon should orbit the Sun, then proceeded to use it to discredit science. In reality, they did not account for the centrifugal acceleration resulting from the motion around the Sun, which is one of the factors that determines Earth’s Hill sphere.

The Moon is affected by the Sun’s and Earth’s gravity and the centrifugal acceleration from the motion of the Earth-Moon system around the Sun.

A satellite tends to orbit Earth —not the Sun— if Earth’s gravity + the centrifugal acceleration is greater than the Sun’s gravity. The satellite’s distance from Earth determines that. The farther it is from the Earth, the stronger the attraction the Sun exerts to the satellite. The region where Earth’s gravity + the centrifugal acceleration is greater than the Sun’s gravity is called the Hill sphere of Earth.

Earth’s Hill sphere is ~1500000 km. The Moon is 384400 km away, well within Earth’s Hill sphere. Therefore, the Moon orbits Earth, not the Sun.

Calculations
The Moon’s case:
Sun’s distance = 1 AU
Moon’s distance = 406700 km (the farthest point from Earth)
Sun’s gravitational acceleration = G * solar mass / (AU-406700 km)^2 = 0.00596433161 m / s²
Earth’s gravitational acceleration = (G * earth mass) / ((406700 km)^2) = 0.00240977603 m / s²
Centrifugal acceleration = ((G * solar mass) / (AU^3)) * (AU – (406700 km)) = 0.00591581945 m / s²
Total acceleration away from the Sun = 0.00240977603 m / s² + 0.00591581945 m / s² = 0.00832559548 m / s²
Because Sun’s gravitational acceleration is less than the total acceleration away from the Sun, then it is possible for the Moon to orbit Earth.

The case of an object at the edge of Earth’s Hill sphere:
Sun’s distance = 1 AU
Object’s distance = 1500000 km
Sun’s gravitational acceleration = G * solar mass / (AU-1500000 km)^2 = 0.00605271739m / s²
Earth’s gravitational acceleration = (G * earth mass) / ((1500000 km)^2) = 0.00017715055 m / s²
Centrifugal acceleration = ((G * solar mass) / (AU^3)) * (AU – (1500000 km)) = 0.00587246725 m / s²
Total acceleration away from the Sun = 0.00017715055 m / s² + 0.00587246725 m / s² = 0.0060496178 m / s²
The sun’s gravitational acceleration is about the same as the total acceleration away from the Sun. It will not be possible for an object here to have a stable orbit around Earth, nor around the Sun. But it is possible to have a stable orbit around this point at the edge of Earth’s Hill sphere, which is called the Lagrangian point L1.

Elegance Our understanding of gravity explains a phenomenon clearly and directly. It is one idea, easy to understand, explains so many phenomena, can account for a large amount of data, and answers many questions. In other words, we can say that gravity is elegant.

In contrast, each of the different concepts in the flat Earth model requires a separate explanation and often in conflict with each other. We can say it is ugly. It is why flat-Earthers cannot accept that a single idea of gravity can explain so many phenomena.

In the beginning, Newton brought up the idea that everyday things falling down and the motion of planets are actually caused by the same phenomenon that he called gravity. In time, we also know gravity can also explain so many other things and led us to understand things we previously don’t know.

On the other hand, flat-Earthers are so used to inventing new “explanations” for every different phenomenon, which often in conflict with each other. They think that gravity can explain so many things is ridiculous and impossible, and that scientists are just making that up. Flat-Earthers often mention the many things that are explained by gravity to ridicule our position. In reality, gravity can, in fact, explain these things consistently. There is nothing ridiculous about that.

What is Gravity In a StarTalk episode, Neil deGrasse Tyson was given the question “what is gravity?” He quipped “we have no idea” before elaborating more. Flat-Earthers quoted it out of context to discredit Neil and gravity, completely disregarding what Neil explained afterward.

In reality, Neil did provide a very comprehensive answer to the question “what is gravity” but flat-Earthers only gave an emphasis to the “we have no idea” part of his answer, and skipped the rest of his answer.

You were meant to ask the question in life. So, to say what is it, I think Einstein, in an Einsteinian answer, we’d say gravity is the curvature of space and time. And that an object will follow the curvature of spacetime, and we interpret that as a force of gravity. That’s probably the best answer I can give to a “what is gravity” question, or why is there a gravity. That’s the best I can do. I think that’s a good start. And I can also say that Einstein noted that matter tells space how to curve, space tells matter how to move.

Yeah, so, matter and energy will curve the fabric of space. It is the curvature that tells other matter how to move in a curvature of space itself. And so Einstein juxtaposes those in a poetic phrase where he said matter tells space how to curve, space tells matter how to move. It’s beautiful.

Pressure Difference Without a Barrier Atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude increases. A pressure difference can occur without a barrier. Other factors, like gravity, can cause a pressure difference.

Flat-Earthers claim a pressure difference cannot possibly occur without a barrier, like Earth’s atmosphere next to the vacuum of space. In reality, it is not difficult to demonstrate that a pressure difference can exist without a barrier.

Many smartphones and smartwatches are equipped with a pressure sensor that we can use to measure the pressure difference. These devices can easily measure the pressure difference between upstairs and downstairs in a two-story house. Some can even tell the pressure difference when we put it on a table and the floor. There is no barrier involved, yet there is a pressure difference, proving that a pressure difference can exist without a barrier.

The pressure gradient of Earth’s atmosphere is well known. We use it to measure altitude. Our smartphones & smartwatches use it to measure our vertical movements for health monitoring purposes.

Density Tower A density tower is formed by layering immiscible liquids of different densities on top of each other. It is possible because Earth’s gravitational acceleration pulls denser fluid particles stronger and displace less dense ones upward.

Flat-Earthers claim that the possibility to have density towers disproves gravity. In reality, a density tower cannot form without the presence of acceleration, like Earth’s gravitational acceleration.

In a zero-G plane, the container is accelerated downward by the same amount as the liquids inside it, and therefore the liquids are not accelerated relative to the container. By nullifying Earth’s gravitational acceleration using a zero-G plane, a density tower will not form.

On Earth’s surface, everything is accelerated downward by Earth’s gravitational acceleration. It is possible to add another acceleration in addition to Earth’s gravitational acceleration already affecting the liquids. Adding these two accelerations together can result in a net acceleration which is not straight downward, and the shape of a density tower will reflect that.

Putting a density tower on a centrifuge will accelerate it away from the center, and it will change the direction of the density tower. Placing a density tower inside an accelerating car will also add acceleration to the system and affect the density tower’s direction.

Repulsive Force Gravity does not possess repulsive force like magnetism. These are two different phenomena with different characteristics.

Flat-Earthers use the lack of a repulsive force in gravity to deny its existence. In reality, there is no requirement for an attractive force to have a repulsive force. Gravity does not act like magnetism, and the fact does not disprove gravity.

Flat-Earthers observe that magnets have both attractive and repulsive forces, and conclude that if a force is attractive, there must be the corresponding repulsive force. They use this invention of “scientific law” to reject gravity, which does not possess a repulsive force. However, there are adhesion and cohesion, which both are attractive forces that do not have the repulsive force, just like gravity. The score is now 3-1 for the phenomena that do not have repulsive force, and by the same “reasoning,” they should start questioning if magnets exist.

Some of them use Newton’s third law to justify the requirement for an attractive force to have repulsive force. In reality, the action and reaction pairs in Newton’s third law affect two different objects. If two objects are attracted to each other by gravity, then two equal forces affect both the objects by the same amount but having the opposite direction. Gravity does not violate Newton’s third law.

Others use the law of the conservation of energy to justify that a repulsive force must exist. However, the law of conservation of energy applies to energy, not force. There is no such thing as the law of conservation of force. In gravity, we have gravitational potential energy. A simple example of this is the pendulum. At the highest position, the weight has a maximum height and therefore having the maximum gravitational potential energy. As it falls lower, it converts the energy to accelerate the weight, turning it into the kinetic energy. As it goes back higher again, it converts the kinetic energy back again and turning it into gravitational potential energy. Again, gravity does not violate the law of conservation of energy.

Weightlessness, Free Fall, and Microgravity In orbit, objects are weightless because both the objects and the spacecraft have the same speed and direction, and both are affected by the same gravitational influence. We use the spacecraft as the frame of reference. Because the objects are not in motion relative to the spacecraft, they appear to float.

In Earth orbit, the objects are still affected by Earth’s gravity, but yet they float. Flat-Earthers use it to disprove spaceflight. In reality, the objects float because we are using the spacecraft as the frame of reference, which is also moving by the same amount and is affected by the same gravity as the objects themselves.

If the thrusters of the rocket are activated, the rocket is affected by a force that does not directly affect the astronaut. So, the astronaut will feel being pushed toward the back of the spacecraft by the same amount it is accelerated forward.

On the lunar surface, the astronaut does not float because he is not in orbit. He lacks the speed to go against lunar gravity. The gravity of the Moon pulls him toward the surface just like on Earth, only one-sixth as strong.